Water shaped world’s first cities—and continues to define Middle East

Water has been present on Earth since the dawn of natural history and has been vital to humanity since its very beginning. Like all living beings, humans have always been dependent on water, not only for survival but also as a foundation of their earliest settlements.

Across the globe, communities formed and flourished around sources of water. It was water that made sedentary life possible, and it was water that determined whether early communities thrived or vanished.

Water and birth of the first cities of Mesopotamia

Given its undeniable importance, it is no surprise that water played a key role in the emergence of the world’s first civilizations. The first veritable cities—densely populated, complex settlements—appeared in southern Mesopotamia, a region defined by its clear, albeit limited, resources.

These early cities were not mere clusters of homes; they represented intricate systems of architecture, governance, and social organization. Central to these systems was hydraulic engineering. Without a reliable supply and management of water, large populations could not survive.

However, water’s mere presence was not enough; it needed to be controlled and distributed effectively. Without hydraulic engineering, the cities of Mesopotamia would have been fleeting experiments rather than the ancestors of modern urban culture.

Thus, the history of water control is deeply intertwined with the history of human civilization itself. Even today, in the very heartlands where cities first emerged — Mesopotamia and the Levant—the control of water continues to shape societies and histories.

The first efforts to control water

Though not quite a dam in the modern sense, the earliest known structure built to store water dates back to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period.

Excavations at El-Jafr, near the border of southern Jordan and Saudi Arabia, revealed small Neolithic villages where semi-nomadic pastoralists built “V”-shaped structures designed to capture seasonal floodwaters.

These early reservoirs, capable of holding around 60 cubic meters of water, offer the earliest evidence of human efforts to collect and manage water.

Interestingly, the first known wells appeared not in arid zones but in areas where water was relatively abundant.

On the island of Cyprus, archaeologists discovered ancient submerged coastal settlements containing wells. These structures, however, may have served purposes beyond simple water storage.

Nevertheless, they remain some of the earliest examples of water control in the Neolithic Near East.

Was water control essential for early farming?

The question arises: was active water control necessary for early agriculture? Many early domesticated plants thrived in regions with sufficient natural rainfall, allowing for “dry farming” without irrigation. Areas such as the Taurus foothills and the Levant supported early agricultural communities thanks to favorable Holocene climate conditions.

Thus, while irrigation was crucial in some regions, it was not universally required during the earliest phases of farming.

From Neolithic to urbanization: The Ubaid breakthrough

Moving into the Chalcolithic period, agricultural practices continued much as they had during the Neolithic: a mixture of farming, hunting, and herding. Major change was on the horizon, but it would not come from naturally fertile uplands — it would come from the challenging environment of southern Mesopotamia.

Around 5,000–6,000 B.C., the Ubaid culture emerged, spreading across Mesopotamia. During this period, the first large-scale irrigation systems were developed. Excavations at Choga Mami near Baghdad revealed remnants of canal-based irrigation, laying the groundwork for what would become the world’s first true civilization: Sumer.

As Robert Oates described, Choga Mami represents a transitional stage between the nature-dependent farming villages of the north and the grand, irrigation-driven economies of the south.

By around 3,900 B.C., the innovations of the Ubaid period culminated in the explosive urban growth of southern Mesopotamia. Irrigation brought stability and agricultural surplus, fueling cultural and technological advancements that gave birth to the cities of Sumer.

Could water mismanagement have doomed summer?

While water control enabled the rise of Sumer, could it also have contributed to its fall? Some theories suggest that prolonged irrigation caused soil salinization, gradually rendering the land infertile.

Combined with internal and external conflicts, these environmental pressures may have contributed to the collapse of Sumerian city-states.

Although definitive conclusions remain elusive, there is firm evidence that poor water management played a significant role in the region’s decline.

Palmyra: A desert metropolis powered by water engineering

One of the most astonishing examples of water’s transformative power is the ancient city of Palmyra. Located deep within the Syrian desert, Palmyra thrived as a trade hub and religious center, boasting a peak population of around 100,000.

How could such a city exist in such an arid environment? Archaeological studies reveal that Palmyra ingeniously captured and redirected nearly every water source within a 40-kilometer radius.

The city’s survival and prosperity were made possible by an extensive and sophisticated network of water management systems, demonstrating the critical link between hydraulic engineering and urban success.

Water wars: Modern legacy of ancient struggle

Fast forward to today, and the battle over water remains as fierce as ever in Mesopotamia and the Levant. Environmental pressures, political conflicts, and climate change all intertwine around this precious resource.

Before Syria’s civil war erupted, severe droughts in 2005–2006 devastated southern agricultural communities, forcing mass migrations to urban centers under dire conditions. The resulting discontent helped ignite the uprising against the Assad regime.

Extremist groups like Daesh understood water’s strategic importance as well. They seized towns along the Euphrates and captured key infrastructure, such as the Mosul Dam, aiming to control populations and weaponize access to water.

Meanwhile, along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, water remains a decisive factor in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Israel’s occupation of the Golan Heights during the Six-Day War of the 1960s secured control over crucial water resources.

Today, underground aquifers serve as vital water supplies for the region. Israel retains control over most of these sources, severely restricting Palestinian access and charging high prices for water in Arab agricultural villages while ensuring free-flowing supplies to new Israeli settlements.