From Palmyra to global awareness: How Assad’s regime fueled Syria’s cultural crisis

Syria’s cultural heritage, a vital testament to the country’s rich history, has suffered immensely due to the civil war. From the destruction of ancient sites like Palmyra to widespread looting, Syria’s past has been marred by conflict.

In an exclusive interview with Türkiye Today, Haian Dukhan, a renowned political scientist and expert on Middle Eastern affairs, sheds light on the impact of the country’s past political instability on its cultural landmarks and the uncertain future of its archaeological sites.

Dukhan‘s personal and academic journey has been deeply influenced by his early life in Palmyra, Syria. Born in the 1980s, Dukhan’s fascination with the intersection of economic conditions and political change began in his hometown, a city known for its world-famous archaeological sites. “Growing up amidst Palmyra’s ancient ruins provided me with firsthand insights into the relationship between identity, power, and opportunity,” says Dukhan.

His academic background, including a Ph.D in International Relations from the University of St. Andrews, allowed him to delve deeper into how the political landscape in Syria has affected its cultural heritage. His research, especially on the connections between local tribal identities and broader political systems, has shaped his understanding of Syria’s fractured cultural identity amidst political turmoil.

Syria’s archaeological sites under Assad regime: Between promotion and neglect

When asked about the interplay between Syria’s political instability and the protection of its archaeological sites under the Assad regime, Dukhan emphasized the regime’s dual approach.

“The regime has long promoted Syria’s cultural heritage as a cornerstone of national identity and international recognition,” Dukhan explained, pointing to Palmyra as a prime example. Once presented as a symbol of Syria’s historical significance, Palmyra also fell victim to the regime’s broader political strategies.

Dukhan described how archaeological sites became entangled in military and political objectives. While the regime used cultural heritage for propaganda, it often failed to ensure its preservation amidst chaos. “Sites like Palmyra were exploited for propaganda purposes, yet subjected to neglect or damage during the war,” Dukhan stated, noting how the destruction of cultural heritage was sometimes leveraged to gain international sympathy and reinforce the narrative of the regime as the protector of Syrian identity.

This manipulation came at a significant cost, as heritage sites often became battlegrounds or tools in the political chess game. The tragic destruction of parts of Palmyra during the war serves as a poignant reminder of how political instability undermines efforts to safeguard cultural heritage.

Dukhan evaluates civil war’s toll on Syria’s cultural legacy

Dukhan further elaborated on the broader consequences of the Syrian civil war on the nation’s archaeological sites and museums. Palmyra, once a UNESCO World Heritage site, became emblematic of the war’s destruction.

“Palmyra suffered extensively, particularly during Daesh’s occupation,” Dukhan recounted. Iconic monuments such as the Temple of Bel, the Arch of Triumph, and the Temple of Baalshamin were deliberately destroyed in acts designed to erase cultural symbols and attract global attention.

The war also fueled widespread looting, with artifacts smuggled out of Syria and sold on the black market, stripping the country of invaluable pieces of its history. Palmyra’s museums, unable to withstand the chaos, saw their collections looted or damaged. Despite efforts to safeguard certain artifacts, many treasures were irrevocably lost.

According to Dukhan, the desecration of Palmyra represents more than just physical destruction. “It was a blow to Syrian identity and global cultural heritage. Palmyra symbolized Syria’s role as a crossroads of civilizations, connecting the ancient East and West. Its destruction obliterated not just tangible heritage but also the soul of a nation,” he lamented.

Role of international organizations in protecting heritage

When discussing the role of international organizations in preserving Syria’s heritage during the war, particularly in Palmyra, Dukhan highlighted both achievements and limitations. Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage site, endured catastrophic destruction under Daesh’s control, including the targeted demolition of landmarks such as the Temple of Bel and the Arch of Triumph.

“International organizations like UNESCO made efforts to raise awareness about Palmyra’s plight through exhibitions, cultural programs, and discussions abroad,” Dukhan explained. These initiatives aimed to keep Palmyra’s legacy alive in global discourse and advocate for its eventual recovery. However, the lack of direct action on the ground, due to the ongoing conflict, left the ruins unprotected. Looting and the black-market trade of artifacts continued unchecked, presenting formidable challenges to preservation.

Dukhan noted that while these organizations succeeded in drawing attention to the cultural importance of Palmyra, their efforts were hindered by the realities of war. “The ongoing devastation of Palmyra underscores the limitations of international interventions in safeguarding heritage during conflict,” Dukhan stated, emphasizing the need for political stability and resources for effective restoration.

Mixed outcomes in global efforts to prevent artifact trafficking

Turning to global measures aimed at curbing the trade in looted artifacts, Dukhan observed a mixed impact. While initiatives such as United Nations Security Council Resolutions 2199 (2015) and 2347 (2017) have raised awareness and strengthened border controls, enforcement remains inconsistent.

“These resolutions have encouraged countries to enhance law enforcement cooperation and monitor the movement of looted items,” Dukhan explained. Organizations like UNESCO and the International Council of Museums (ICOM) have also launched campaigns and tools, such as the Emergency Red List of Syrian Cultural Objects at Risk, to assist customs officials and art dealers in identifying stolen artifacts. Some auction houses have adopted stricter provenance checks, signaling progress in reducing illegal sales.

Despite these advancements, the scale of looting during the war has overwhelmed enforcement efforts. Many artifacts have vanished into private collections or illicit networks, exploiting documentation gaps created by the conflict. Dukhan underscored the uneven implementation of protective measures across countries, which limits the effectiveness of global efforts.

“Global initiatives have undoubtedly helped recover some stolen artifacts and raised awareness, but they are not enough to fully safeguard Syria’s cultural heritage,” Dukhan said. He called for stronger international collaboration, comprehensive documentation of cultural assets, and robust post-conflict strategies to restore and repatriate stolen treasures.

Challenges for preservation, restoration of archaeological sites, museums post-conflict

Dukhan identifies three primary challenges that will shape the future of Syria’s cultural heritage preservation efforts:

1. Security and stability: “Achieving a stable and secure environment is the most critical challenge,” Dukhan explains. Without lasting peace and a functioning government, restoration efforts cannot be conducted effectively. Continued instability risks further damage to archaeological sites and museums, as well as endangering the lives of professionals tasked with preservation work.
2. Funding and resources: Syria’s devastated economy poses a significant barrier to restoration efforts. “International funding and collaboration will be essential,” says Dukhan. However, political divisions and competing global priorities may hinder the flow of necessary financial and logistical support.
3. Expertise and workforce: Years of war have displaced many of Syria’s skilled archaeologists and heritage preservation professionals. “Rebuilding this expertise will require extensive training programs and partnerships with international experts to ensure proper restoration techniques are applied,” Dukhan emphasizes.

Despite these challenges, Dukhan believes there is a clear and achievable path to restoring Syria’s lost cultural heritage. He outlines the vital roles that local communities and international partners must play to ensure this vision becomes a reality.

Restoring Syria’s lost cultural heritage: Path forward or unattainable goal?

Dukhan highlighted the importance of local communities as central players in the restoration process. “Syrian communities are deeply connected to their cultural heritage, and their involvement ensures that restoration efforts are meaningful and sustainable,” he stated.

By engaging local residents as stewards of their heritage, providing training, and including them in decision-making processes, these efforts can foster a sense of ownership and pride.

“Restoring cultural sites is not just about preserving history; it can rebuild social cohesion,” Dukhan added. He believes that heritage restoration offers communities a shared purpose and identity, which is vital after years of division and loss.

International partners’ essential contributions

International collaboration is equally critical, according to Dukhan. Organizations like UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) have the expertise, funding, and global influence needed to spearhead large-scale restoration projects. “International partners can provide the technical resources and legal frameworks necessary to recover looted artifacts and ensure they return to their rightful place,” he explained.

Global partnerships can also amplify awareness of Syria’s cultural heritage, encouraging nations to rally behind its preservation. Dukhan stressed that these collaborations should not only focus on technical aspects but also prioritize empowering local communities.

Why optimism is warranted at sites like Palmyra

“Syria’s cultural heritage is not lost—it is resilient, as are its people,” Dukhan affirmed. Sites like Palmyra, despite the damage, stand as enduring symbols of millennia-old history. Advances in technology, including 3D modeling and digital archiving, offer innovative solutions for reconstruction and long-term preservation.

He pointed out that the international outcry over the destruction of Syria’s heritage has spurred a global commitment to ensuring these losses are not permanent. “Restoration is a long journey, but the dedication of local communities and international support can transform Syria’s heritage into a renewed source of pride and unity,” Dukhan concluded.

Dukhan emphasized that rebuilding Syria’s cultural heritage is about more than physical restoration—it is about healing a nation’s soul.

Importance of Syria’s archaeological sites, museums to national identity in post-conflict rebuilding

Syria’s archaeological sites and museums, particularly iconic locations like Palmyra, hold immense importance for the nation’s identity. Palmyra, with its majestic colonnades and ancient temples, symbolizes Syria’s historical significance as a cultural and trade crossroads connecting East and West.

“These sites remind Syrians of their rich heritage and resilience,” Dukhan explained. Restoring them not only reinforces national pride but also reaffirms a collective identity rooted in a shared past, even in the face of adversity.

Fostering unity through shared heritage

Cultural heritage has the power to bridge divides within Syria’s diverse population. “Places like Palmyra offer common ground for people of different ethnic, religious, and political backgrounds,” Dukhan noted. By focusing on rebuilding these sites, Syrians can foster a sense of belonging and shared purpose that transcends the divisions caused by years of conflict.

Rebuilding Syria’s cultural landscape

The restoration of archaeological sites and museums is about more than preserving history; it is integral to the psychological and economic recovery of the nation. Reviving these cultural treasures can boost tourism, create jobs, and strengthen local economies. Moreover, showcasing Syria’s enduring heritage on the global stage reaffirms the nation’s resilience and cultural significance.

Dukhan stressed, “Places like Palmyra can serve as beacons of hope, reconnecting Syrians with their past while inspiring unity and determination to rebuild a better future.”

Heritage as tool for peace and reconciliation

To ensure that Syria’s cultural heritage contributes to the broader process of peace and reconciliation, Dukhan outlined several essential steps:

1. Education and awareness programs
   Educational initiatives can highlight the shared significance of Syria’s cultural heritage. Integrating heritage into school curriculums, launching public campaigns, and organizing community workshops can foster a collective identity, emphasizing the unifying power of these historical treasures.
2. Local community involvement
   Engaging local communities as stewards of their cultural sites ensures long-term preservation. Training programs in restoration, museum curation, and artifact conservation can empower locals, provide job opportunities, and strengthen their connection to these sites. Dukhan stressed, “Local involvement fosters ownership and responsibility, which are crucial for sustainable heritage protection.”
3. International collaboration
   Global partnerships with organizations like UNESCO and ICOMOS are vital for providing technical expertise and funding. These collaborations can also highlight Syria’s heritage as part of humanity’s shared legacy, offering a neutral platform for rebuilding trust within Syria and with the international community.

Syria’s struggles with cultural heritage, broader regional challenges in Middle East

Syria’s cultural heritage has suffered immense destruction, reflecting a troubling trend across the Middle East. “In both Syria and Iraq, cultural sites have been deliberately targeted by extremist groups to erase historical identities,” Dukhan explains. He draws parallels between Daesh’s destruction of Palmyra in Syria and the ancient sites of Nimrud and the Mosul Museum in Iraq.

Yemen faces similar challenges, with airstrikes and ground fighting damaging landmarks like the Old City of Sana’a and the Great Dam of Marib. “These acts of violence leave scars not only on the land but on the collective memory of the affected nations,” Dukhan adds.

Looting and illicit artifact trade

Conflict zones in the Middle East have become hotbeds for looting and illegal trade in antiquities. In Syria, looted artifacts have flooded international markets, often funding armed groups.

Iraq endured a comparable crisis during the post-2003 invasion chaos, with thousands of artifacts stolen from the National Museum of Iraq and key archaeological sites. Yemen, too, has seen an uptick in the illicit trade of antiquities due to institutional collapse.

Weak governance and its toll on preservation

In conflict-ridden nations like Syria, Iraq, and Yemen, weakened governance exacerbates the challenges of heritage preservation.

Without functional state institutions, safeguarding archaeological sites, enforcing laws against looting, or funding restoration becomes a herculean task.

Dukhan points to Iraq’s restoration of sites like Nimrud and the Mosul Museum as a potential blueprint for Syria and Yemen. “International collaborations, sustained funding, and community involvement are critical to ensuring that cultural heritage becomes a tool for unity rather than division,” he emphasizes.

Fate of archaeological heritage and its influence on global conversations about cultural preservation during wartime

The widespread destruction and looting of Syria’s archaeological sites have galvanized international efforts to protect cultural heritage during conflicts. “The fate of sites like Palmyra has underscored the vulnerabilities of heritage in war zones,” Dukhan remarks, highlighting the global awareness this crisis has generated.

Shaping global policies

Syria’s experience has led to significant advancements in international policy. U.N. resolutions condemning the destruction of cultural heritage and the illicit trade in artifacts underscore the urgent need for global collaboration.

Advancing protective technologies

Innovative tools such as 3D modeling, satellite monitoring, and international partnerships have become pivotal in documenting and safeguarding endangered heritage sites. “These efforts have been inspired by the lessons learned from Syria’s crisis,” Dukhan notes.

Syria’s heritage crisis serves as a stark reminder of the importance of cultural preservation. Dukhan concludes, “Protecting cultural heritage is not just about saving monuments; it’s about preserving identity, fostering resilience, and building solidarity across nations.”

Dukhan concludes, “Protecting cultural heritage is not just about saving monuments; it’s about preserving identity, fostering resilience, and building solidarity across nations.”

Message to int’l community about future of Syria’s cultural heritage

Dukhan emphasizes the importance of Syria’s cultural heritage, particularly the ancient city of Palmyra, as a symbol of resilience and a shared human legacy.

“Protecting and restoring these treasures is not just about preserving the past, but about giving hope to future generations,” he states.

He called on the international community to play a critical role in Syria’s heritage preservation by offering resources, expertise, and collaboration. “Your support is vital to ensuring Syria’s heritage endures as a beacon of unity and identity,” Dukhan urges.

Hope for future: Restoration and renewal

Looking ahead to the next five to 10 years, Dukhan envisions a future where Syria’s archaeological sites and museums are restored as powerful symbols of unity, identity, and renewal. He hopes that with the fall of Assad’s regime, Syria will be able to rebuild its cultural fabric and foster a renewed sense of national pride.

Key goals for future

1. Restoration and preservation: Dukhan envisions the restoration of key sites and museums, showcasing Syria’s diverse heritage as a bridge between civilizations.
2. Repatriation of looted artifacts: He hopes for collaborative international efforts to recover and return stolen artifacts, reuniting Syrians with their cultural legacy.
3. Community involvement: Dukhan stresses the importance of local communities actively participating in preservation efforts, which would foster a sense of ownership and pride in their cultural heritage.

Syria’s cultural heritage, particularly its archaeological sites like Palmyra, remains a vital symbol of the country’s rich history and identity. While the challenges of preservation in a post-conflict environment are daunting, there is hope for restoration.

Local communities, international organizations, and collaborative efforts can play a pivotal role in securing the future of Syria’s cultural treasures. The lessons learned from Syria’s experience are shaping global policies on cultural heritage protection, ensuring that the fate of these treasures influences broader efforts to preserve cultural identities in conflict zones around the world.